What is a gravitational wave?

What is a gravitational wave?

A gravitational wave* is a concept predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity. General relativity states that mass distorts both space and time in the same way a heavy bowling ball will distort a trampoline.

When an object accelerates, it creates ripples in space-time, just like a boat causes ripples in a pond (and also similarly an accelerating electrical charge produces an electromagnetic wave). These space-time ripples are gravitational waves. They are extremely weak so are very difficult to detect. Missions like LISA or LIGO hope to spot gravitation waves detecting small changes in the distances between objects at set distances; satellites for LISA and mirrors for LIGO. As the strength of the wave depends on the mass of the object our best hope of detecting gravitational waves comes from detecting two black holes or pulsars collapsing into each other.

Gravitational waves have been inferred from watching two pulsars spinning and noticing they are slowing down, due to losing energy from emitting gravitational waves.

Gravitational waves are important in telling us about the early universe. The cosmic microwave background gives us a snapshot of the universe about 380,000 years after the start of the universe. Looking very closely at the cosmic microwave background there are patterns seen which can are also be measured in the large scale structure of the universe (so galaxies and clusters) today. These patterns in the cosmic microwave background were caused by very tiny random perturbations from the time when the universe expanded rapidly, known as inflation.

Inflation should also generate gravitational waves. These waves affect the polarization (the way the wave oscillates) of the cosmic microwave background. Measuring the strength of the polarization due to gravitational waves gives us a ballpark figure of the amount of energy involved at the time of inflation and helps pin down when inflation occurred.

*Not to be confused with a gravity wave (which is a wave driven by the force of gravity).

Why Do We Always See the Same Side of the Moon?

Q: Why does the moon always present the same face to us? I find it impossible to believe that this could happen by chance.

A: Nope, not by chance — it’s pure physics.

For starters, the moon is not stuck in place with one side facing us. Our lunar companion rotates while it orbits Earth. It’s just that the amount of time it takes the moon to complete a revolution on its axis is the same it takes to circle our planet — about 27 days. As a result, the same lunar hemisphere always faces Earth.

How’d this come to be? In a word: gravity. The moon’s gravity slightly warps our planet’s shape and gives us tides. Likewise, Earth tugs at the moon, creating a rocky, high-tide “bulge” facing us. That bulge ended up working like a brake, slowing the moon’s spin down to the current rate, so the lunar high tide permanently faces us.

When that happened, about 4 billion years ago, the moon became “tidally locked,” and it has presented us the same visage ever since.

If scientists can't see dark matter, how do they know it exists?

Q.If scientists can't see dark matter, how do they know it exists?

Ans. Scientists calculate the mass of large objects in space by studying their motion. Astronomers examining spiral galaxies in the 1950s expected to see material in the center moving faster than on the outer edges. Instead, they found the stars in both locations traveled at the same velocity, indicating the galaxies contained more mass than could be seen. Studies of the gas within elliptical galaxies also indicated a need for more mass than found in visible objects. Clusters of galaxies would fly apart if the only mass they contained were visible to conventional astronomical measurements.

Albert Einstein showed that massive objects in the universe bend and distort light, allowing them to be used as lenses. By studying how light is distorted by galaxy clusters, astronomers have been able to create a map of dark matter in the universe.

Although dark matter makes up most of the matter of the universe, it only makes up about a quarter of the composition. The universe is dominated by dark energy.

After the Big Bang, the universe began expanding outward. Scientists once thought that it would eventually run out of the energy, slowing down as gravity pulled the objects inside it together. But studies of distant supernovae revealed that the universe today is expanding faster than it was in the past, not slower, indicating that the expansion is accelerating. This would only be possible if the universe contained enough energy to overcome gravity — dark energy.

All of these methods provide a strong indication that the most of the matter in the universe is something yet unseen.

What is proof of Kepler law of planetary motion that all planet has elliptical orbit? And why they have elliptical orbit instead of a circular orbit?

The orbit of a planet is an ellipse where one focus of the ellipse is the sun.

An ellipse is defined by two focii and all points for which the sum of the distances are the same. The semimajor axis (a) is the long distance from the center to edge of the ellipse. If r1 and r2 are the distances from the focii to any point on the ellipse then r1 + r2 = 2a. The short axis is called the semiminor axis.

How “elliptical” an orbit is can be described by the eccentricity(e). The eccentricity is equal to the distance between a focus and the center (c) of the ellipses divided by the semimajor axis (a). That is, e = c/a. 

See the elementary proof: View

Types Of Galaxies

Many different types of galaxies exist. The different types of galaxies not only appear different, but have different evolutionary histories as well. The three fundamental classes of galaxies are elliptical, spiral, and irregular. These categories are further broken down into subclasses, often illustrated using a Hubble tuning fork diagram. Originally, scientists thought this diagram may have represented an evolutionary sequence for galaxies, but today we know that this is not true. The formation and evolution of galaxies is a complex process that is poorly understood.

Ellipticals

Elliptical galaxies are so named because they have elliptical shapes: they look like fat, fuzzy eggs or footballs. Stars in ellipticals do not spread out into a thin disk, as they do in spiral galaxies; instead, they wrap evenly around the galaxy's center in all directions. Ellipticals have smoothly varying brightnesses, with the degree of brightness steadily decreasing outward from the center. If you look at an ellipse-shaped surface that surrounds the center of an elliptical, all the stars on that surface will have similar brightnesses. Elliptical galaxies are also nearly all the same color: somewhat redder than the Sun. On the tuning fork diagram, they are classified as E, followed by a number indicating how elliptical a given galaxy is. The higher the number, the more elliptical the galaxy; that is, the longer the galaxy is with respect to its width.

The reddish color of ellipticals (as well as other more detailed observations) tells us something important their histories. The galaxies' red color comes from older, cooler stars. The fact that most of the light comes from old stars suggests that most ellipticals formed long ago. The fact that the color of an elliptical is more or less the same throughout the galaxy suggests that most of the stars in these galaxies formed at about the same time.

In addition, most elliptical galaxies in the universe are found near other elliptical galaxies, in galaxy clusters. In these clusters, some 75% of the galaxies are elliptical. This clustering also suggests that they formed a long time ago, because galaxies are likely to have formed first in high-density regions like galaxy clusters.

The largest galaxies in the universe are giant elliptical galaxies. They can contain a trillion stars or more, and span as much as two million light-years - about 20 times the width of the Milky Way. Some of them appear to contain supermassive black holes at their hearts - star-gobbling monsters that are as much as three billion times as heavy as the Sun. These giant ellipticals are often found in the hearts of galaxy clusters.

Spirals

Spiral galaxies like the one to the left have flat disks of stars with bright bulges called nuclei in their centers. Spiral arms wrap around these bulges. An extended spherical halo of stars envelops the nuclei and arms. Spiral arms probably form as the result of waves that sweep through the galactic disk. Like the waves on the ocean, these so-called "density waves" don't carry any material with them - they move by disrupting the material they pass through. In the case of galaxies, density waves squeeze clouds of interstellar gas, causing new stars to form inside the clouds. Some newborn stars are massive, hot, and bright, so they make the spiral arms appear bright. These massive stars are blue or white, so the spiral arms look blue-white, too. When viewed edge-on, the spiral arms often appear as dark lanes, because they contain lots of interstellar dust that blocks the light from the bulge. The gaps between the arms contain older stars, which are not as bright. However, the bulges of spirals are often red, like elliptical galaxies, suggesting that they are composed of older stars.

In some spirals, the density wave organizes the stars in the center into a bar. The arms of barred spiral galaxies spiral outward from the ends of the bar. The Milky Way may fall into this class of spirals, called barred spirals.

In the Hubble tuning fork system, normal spirals are designated "S" and the barred varieties "SB." Each of these classes is subclassified into three types according to the size of the nucleus and the degree to which the spiral arms are coiled. The three subclasses are denoted with the lowercase letters "a," "b," and "c." Some galaxies are also intermediate between ellipticals and spirals. These intermediate galaxies have the disk shape characteristic of spirals, but have no spiral arms. These intermediate forms bear the designation "S0." Three spiral galaxies are shown below.

Irregulars

The final class of galaxies, "irregulars," contains a hodge-podge of shapes - anything that looks neither spiral nor elliptical. Any galaxy with no identifiable form - whose stars, gas, and dust are spread randomly - is classified as irregular. Irregulars are the smallest galaxies, and they may contain as few as one million stars. They may be the "building blocks" that came together to form the first large galaxies. Many small irregular galaxies orbit the Milky Way, including the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds.

Hubble recognized two types of irregular galaxies, Irr I and Irr II. Irr I is the most common type of irregular galaxy. This type and seems to be an extension of the spiral classes, beyond Sc, into galaxies with no discernible spiral structure. Irr I galaxies are blue, highly resolved, and have little or no nucleus. Irr II galaxies are rare. This type includes various kinds of chaotic galaxies, which appear to have formed in many different ways.

Quasars

Quasars were first discovered in the early 1960s when radio astronomers identified a small star designated 3C 48 that emitted powerful radio waves. When they measured the spectrum of the star, they found something completely unexpected: the spectrum was flat with several unexpected, and totally unexplainable, emission lines. The object remained a mystery until similar but brighter object, 3C 273, was discovered in 1963. Astronomers noticed that 3C 273 had a normal spectrum with the same emission lines as observed in radio galaxies, but the spectrum had been greatly redshifted (that is, spectral lines were found at longer wavelengths than expected). This observation explained the mystery of 3C 48's spectrum: it was an ordinary spectrum from a radio galaxy, but it was so redshifted that familiar spectral lines were so far from where they should have been that no one recognized them. When an object moves away from us, its spectral lines are redshifted; the faster it moves, the greater the redshift. If 3C 273's redshift were to be due to its velocity, however, its velocity would have to be faster than the speed of light - which is impossible. Many more such objects were found, and they came to be known as quasi-stellar radio sources, abbreviated as quasars.

Today, we know that quasars are galaxies with extremely energetic nuclei. The amount of radiation emitted by such a nucleus overwhelms the light from the rest of the galaxy, so that only special observational techniques can reveal the rest of the galaxy's existence. The nucleus explains why quasars appear starlike - all we can see is the bright central engine.

Although the nucleus of a quasar is extremely small - only the size of the Solar System - it emits up to 100 times as much radiation as an entire galaxy. The galaxy underlying the brilliant image of a quasar is probably fairly normal, except for the superficial large-scale effects of the quasar at its center. Quasars are thought to be powered by supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies. The powerful radiation we see comes from matter swirling around and falling into the black hole.

The SDSS (and sky surveys that use visible light) can find distant quasars at redshifts of 4-6, or 90% as old as the universe itself, because quasars look like stars but have peculiar colors. By searching for faint starlike objects and taking their spectra, the SDSS is expected to find thousands of quasars at redshifts greater than 4. The most distant quasar yet discovered, at a redshift of 6.4, was seen by the SDSS in January 2003.